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Was the Dao Ching or Art or War Written First

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Chinese classic text

Tao Te Ching
Mawangdui LaoTsu Ms2.JPG

Ink on silk manuscript of the Tao Te Ching, 2d century BC, unearthed from Mawangdui
Author Laozi (traditionally credited)
Original title 道德經
Country China (Zhou)
Linguistic communication Classical Chinese
Genre Philosophy

Publication date

 4th century BC

Published in English language

 1868

Original text

 道德經 at Chinese Wikisource
Translation Tao Te Ching at Wikisource
Tao Te Ching
Traditional Chinese 道德經
Simplified Chinese 道德经
Wade–Giles Tao⁴ Tê² Chingi
Hanyu Pinyin Dàodé Jīng
Literal meaning "Classic of the Way and Virtue"
Laozi'south Tao Te Ching
Traditional Chinese 老子《道德經》
Simplified Chinese 老子《道德经》
Wade–Giles Lao³ Tzŭ³ Tao⁴ Tê² Ching1
Hanyu Pinyin Lǎozǐ Dàodé Jīng
Daode Zhenjing
Traditional Chinese 道德真經
Simplified Chinese 道德真经
Wade–Giles Tao⁴ Tê² Chênane Ching1
Hanyu Pinyin Dàodé Zhēnjīng
Literal meaning "Sutra of the Way and Its Power"
Other names
Laozi
Chinese 老子
Wade–Giles Lao³ Tzŭ³
Hanyu Pinyin Lǎozǐ
Literal meaning "Old Master"
5000-Character Classic
Chinese 五千文
Wade–Giles Wu³ Ch'ienane Wên²
Hanyu Pinyin Wǔqiān Wén
Literal meaning "The 5000 Characters"

The Tao Te Ching (,[1] ;[2] simplified Chinese: 道德经; traditional Chinese: 道德經; pinyin: Dàodé Jīng [tâʊ tɤ̌ tɕíŋ] ( heed ))[notation 1] is a Chinese archetype text written around 400 BC and traditionally credited to the sage Laozi.[seven] [viii] The text'south authorship, date of composition and date of compilation are debated.[9] The oldest excavated portion dates back to the late fourth century BC,[10] but modern scholarship dates other parts of the text every bit having been written—or at least compiled—later than the earliest portions of the Zhuangzi.[xi]

The Tao Te Ching, forth with the Zhuangzi, is a fundamental text for both philosophical and religious Taoism. Information technology also strongly influenced other schools of Chinese philosophy and faith, including Legalism, Confucianism, and Chinese Buddhism, which was largely interpreted through the use of Taoist words and concepts when it was originally introduced to China. Many artists, including poets, painters, calligraphers, and gardeners, have used the Tao Te Ching as a source of inspiration. Its influence has spread widely outside Eastern asia and it is amidst the nearly translated works in world literature.[10]

Title [edit]

In English language, the championship is ordinarily rendered Tao Te Ching , post-obit Wade–Giles romanization, or Dao De Jing , post-obit pinyin. The Chinese characters in the championship (simplified Chinese: 道德经; traditional Chinese: 道德經; pinyin: Dàodéjīng ; Wade–Giles: Tao⁴ Tê² Ching1 ) are:

道 (pinyin: dào ; Wade–Giles: tao⁴ ) literally means "manner", or one of its synonyms, but was extended to mean "the Way". This term, which was variously used by other Chinese philosophers (including Confucius, Mencius, Mozi, and Hanfeizi), has special pregnant within the context of Taoism, where information technology implies the essential, unnameable procedure of the universe.
德 (pinyin: dé ; Wade–Giles: tê² ) ways "virtue", "personal character", "inner strength" (virtuosity), or "integrity". The semantics of this Chinese discussion resemble English virtue, which developed from the Italian virtù, an archaic sense of "inner potency" or "divine power" (equally in "healing virtue of a drug") to the modern meaning of "moral excellence" or "goodness". Compare the compound word 道德 (pinyin: dàodé ; Wade–Giles: tao⁴-tê² ), literally "ethics", "ethical principles", "morals" or "morality".
經 (Chinese: 经; pinyin: jīng ; Wade–Giles: ching1 ) as it is used here means "catechism", "bang-up book", or "classic".

The showtime graphic symbol can be considered to modify the second or tin can be understood equally standing alongside it in modifying the third. Thus, the Tao Te Ching can be translated equally The Classic of the Way's Virtue(southward),[ citation needed ] The Book of the Tao and Its Virtue,[12] or The Book of the Way and of Virtue.[13] [14] It has as well been translated as The Tao and its Characteristics,[5] The Canon of Reason and Virtue,[half-dozen] The Classic Book of Integrity and the Way,[15] and A Treatise on the Principle and Its Action.[sixteen] [17]

Ancient Chinese books were commonly referenced by the name of their existent or supposed author, in this example the "Onetime Chief",[18] Laozi. As such, the Tao Te Ching is likewise sometimes referred to as the Laozi, particularly in Chinese sources.[10]

The championship "Daodejing", with its condition as a archetype, was but beginning practical from the reign of Emperor Jing of Han (157–141 BC) onward.[19] Other titles of the work include the honorific "Sutra (or "Perfect Scripture") of the Style and Its Power" (Daode Zhenjing) and the descriptive "5,000-Character Classic" (Wuqian Wen).

Text [edit]

The Tao Te Ching has a long and complex textual history. Known versions and commentaries appointment back 2 millennia, including ancient bamboo, silk, and paper manuscripts discovered in the twentieth century.

Internal construction [edit]

The Tao Te Ching is a short text of around five,000 Chinese characters in 81 brief capacity or sections ( 章 ). At that place is some evidence that the chapter divisions were after additions—for commentary, or equally aids to rote memorization—and that the original text was more than fluidly organized. Information technology has two parts, the Tao Ching ( 道經 ; chapters i–37) and the Te Ching ( 德經 ; chapters 38–81), which may have been edited together into the received text, possibly reversed from an original Te Tao Ching. The written style is laconic, has few grammatical particles, and encourages varied, contradictory interpretations. The ideas are atypical; the style poetic. The rhetorical style combines two major strategies: curt, declarative statements and intentional contradictions. The first of these strategies creates memorable phrases, while the second forces the reader to reconcile supposed contradictions.[20]

The Chinese characters in the original versions were probably written in zhuànshū (篆書 seal script), while afterward versions were written in lìshū (隸書 clerical script) and kǎishū (楷書 regular script) styles.

[edit]

The Tao Te Ching is ascribed to Laozi, whose historical existence has been a matter of scholarly contend. His name, which means "Old Master", has only fueled controversy on this effect.[21]

The first reliable reference to Laozi is his "biography" in the Records of the Grand Historian (63, tr. Chan 1963:35–37), by Chinese historian Sima Qian (c.  145–86 BC), which combines 3 stories. In the offset, Laozi was a gimmicky of Confucius (551–479 BC). His surname was Li ( 李 "plum"), and his personal name was Er ( 耳 "ear") or Dan ( 聃 "long ear"). He was an official in the imperial athenaeum, and wrote a book in two parts before departing to the W; at the request of the keeper of the Han-ku Pass, Yinxi, Laozi equanimous the Tao Te Ching. In the 2d story, Laozi, also a contemporary of Confucius, was Lao Laizi ( 老莱子 "Onetime Come Master"), who wrote a volume in 15 parts. Third, Laozi was the grand historian and astrologer Lao Dan ( 老聃 "Former Long-ears"), who lived during the reign (384–362 BC) of Knuckles Xian of Qin ( 秦獻公 ).

Generations of scholars have debated the historicity of Laozi and the dating of the Tao Te Ching. Linguistic studies of the text'southward vocabulary and rhyme scheme point to a date of composition after the Shijing nevertheless before the Zhuangzi. Legends merits variously that Laozi was "born sometime" and that he lived for 996 years, with twelve previous incarnations starting around the time of the Three Sovereigns earlier the thirteenth as Laozi. Some Western scholars accept expressed doubts over Laozi's historical existence.

Many Taoists venerate Laozi as Daotsu, the founder of the school of Dao, the Daode Tianzun in the Iii Pure Ones, and one of the viii elders transformed from Taiji in the Chinese creation myth.

The predominant view among scholars today is that the text is a compilation or anthology representing multiple authors. The current text might have been compiled c.  250 BCE, drawn from a wide range of texts dating back a century or two.[22]

Principal versions [edit]

Among the many transmitted editions of the Tao Te Ching text, the three primary ones are named later on early on commentaries. The "Yan Zun Version", which is only extant for the Te Ching, derives from a commentary attributed to Han dynasty scholar Yan Zun ( 巖尊 , fl. 80 BC – 10 Ad). The "Heshang Gong Version" is named subsequently the legendary Heshang Gong ( 河上公 "Riverside Sage") who supposedly lived during the reign (180–157 BC) of Emperor Wen of Han. This commentary has a preface written by Ge Xuan ( 葛玄 , 164–244 Ad), granduncle of Ge Hong, and scholarship dates this version to around the third century Advertising. The "Wang Bi Version" has more verifiable origins than either of the above. Wang Bi ( 王弼 , 226–249 Advertisement) was a famous Iii Kingdoms menses philosopher and commentator on the Tao Te Ching and the I Ching.

Tao Te Ching scholarship has avant-garde from archeological discoveries of manuscripts, some of which are older than whatsoever of the received texts. Showtime in the 1920s and 1930s, Marc Aurel Stein and others found thousands of scrolls in the Mogao Caves near Dunhuang. They included more than than 50 fractional and complete "Tao Te Ching" manuscripts. One written past the scribe Then/Su Dan (素統) is dated 270 AD and corresponds closely with the Heshang Gong version. Another fractional manuscript has the Xiang'er ( 想爾 ) commentary, which had previously been lost.[23]

Mawangdui and Guodian texts [edit]

In 1973, archeologists discovered copies of early Chinese books, known every bit the Mawangdui Silk Texts, in a tomb dating from 168 BC.[10] They included two nearly complete copies of the text, referred to every bit Text A ( 甲 ) and Text B ( 乙 ), both of which reverse the traditional ordering and put the Te Ching department before the Tao Ching, which is why the Henricks translation of them is named "Te-Tao Ching". Based on calligraphic styles and majestic naming taboo avoidances, scholars believe that Text A can exist dated to about the start decade and Text B to about the tertiary decade of the 2d century BC.[24]

In 1993, the oldest known version of the text, written on bamboo tablets, was found in a tomb well-nigh the town of Guodian ( 郭店 ) in Jingmen, Hubei, and dated prior to 300 BC.[10] The Guodian Chu Slips comprise nigh 800 slips of bamboo with a total of over 13,000 characters, nearly 2,000 of which correspond with the Tao Te Ching.

Both the Mawangdui and Guodian versions are generally consistent with the received texts, excepting differences in chapter sequence and graphic variants. Several recent Tao Te Ching translations utilize these ii versions, sometimes with the verses reordered to synthesize the new finds.[25]

Themes [edit]

The text concerns itself with the Dao (or "Way"), and how it is expressed past virtue (de). Specifically, the text emphasizes the virtues of naturalness (ziran) and non-activity (wuwei).[22]

Versions and translations [edit]

The Tao Te Ching has been translated into Western languages over 250 times, more often than not to English, German, and French.[26] According to Holmes Welch, "It is a famous puzzle which anybody would like to feel he had solved."[27] The first English language translation of the Tao Te Ching was produced in 1868 by the Scottish Protestant missionary John Chalmers, entitled The Speculations on Metaphysics, Polity, and Morality of the "Old Philosopher" Lau-tsze.[28] It was heavily indebted[29] to Julien's French translation[13] and dedicated to James Legge,[4] who later produced his own translation for Oxford'southward Sacred Books of the East.[v]

Other notable English translations of the Tao Te Ching are those produced by Chinese scholars and teachers: a 1948 translation by linguist Lin Yutang, a 1961 translation by author John Ching Hsiung Wu, a 1963 translation by sinologist Din Cheuk Lau, another 1963 translation by professor Wing-tsit Chan, and a 1972 translation by Taoist teacher Gia-Fu Feng together with his married woman Jane English language.

Many translations are written past people with a foundation in Chinese language and philosophy who are trying to render the original meaning of the text as faithfully every bit possible into English language. Some of the more pop translations are written from a less scholarly perspective, giving an private author'due south interpretation. Critics of these versions merits that their translators deviate from the text and are incompatible with the history of Chinese thought.[xxx] Russell Kirkland goes farther to argue that these versions are based on Western Orientalist fantasies and correspond the colonial cribbing of Chinese civilization.[31] [32] Other Taoism scholars, such as Michael LaFargue[33] and Jonathan Herman,[34] argue that while they do non pretend to scholarship, they run across a existent spiritual need in the W. These Westernized versions aim to make the wisdom of the Tao Te Ching more than accessible to modern English-speaking readers by, typically, employing more familiar cultural and temporal references.

Translational difficulties [edit]

The Tao Te Ching is written in Classical Chinese, which poses a number of challenges to consummate comprehension. As Holmes Welch notes, the written language "has no active or passive, no atypical or plural, no case, no person, no tense, no mood."[35] Moreover, the received text lacks many grammatical particles which are preserved in the older Mawangdui and Beida texts, which let the text to be more than precise.[36] Lastly, many passages of the Tao Te Ching are deliberately vague and ambiguous.

Since there are no punctuation marks in Classical Chinese, it tin be difficult to conclusively determine where one sentence ends and the next begins. Moving a full-stop a few words forward or back or inserting a comma can profoundly alter the meaning of many passages, and such divisions and meanings must be determined by the translator. Some editors and translators fence that the received text is and then corrupted (from originally being written on one-line bamboo strips linked with silk threads) that information technology is impossible to understand some chapters without moving sequences of characters from one place to another.

Notable translations [edit]

  • Julien, Stanislas, ed. (1842), Le Livre de la Voie et de la Vertu (in French), Paris: Imprimerie Royale
  • Chalmers, John, ed. (1868), The Speculations on Metaphysics, Polity, and Morality of the "Old Philosopher" Lau-tsze, London, England: Trübner & Co., ISBN9780524077887
  • Legge, James; et al., eds. (1891), The Tao Teh King, Sacred Books of the East, Vol. XXXIX, Sacred Books of China, Vol. V, Oxford: Oxford Academy Press .
  • Giles, Lionel; et al., eds. (1905), The Sayings of Lao Tzu, The Wisdom of the East, New York: E.P. Dutton & Co.
  • Suzuki, Daisetsu Teitaro; et al., eds. (1913), The Canon of Reason and Virtue: Lao-tze's Tao Teh King, La Salle: Open Courtroom .
  • Wieger, Léon, ed. (1913), Les Pères du Système Taoiste, Taoïsme, Vol. II (in French), Hien Hien
  • Wilhelm, Richard (1923), Tao Te Rex: das Buch vom Sinn und Leben (in German language), Jena: Diederichs
  • Duyvendak, J.J.L. (1954), Tao Te Ching: The Book of the Manner and Its Virtue, John Murray
  • Waley, Arthur (1958) [1934], The Mode and Its Power, New York: Grove Press
  • Chan, Wing-tsit (1963), The Way of Lao Tzu: Tao-te ching, Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill
  • Henricks, Robert G. (1989), Lao-tzu: Te-tao ching. A New Translation Based on the Recently Discovered Ma-wang-tui Texts, New York, NY: Ballantine Books, ISBN0-345-34790-0
  • Tao Te Ching: A New English language Version, translated past Mitchell, Stephen, New York: HarperCollins, 1988, ISBN9780061807398 .
  • Lau, D. C. (1989), Tao Te Ching, Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, ISBN9789622014671
  • Mair, Victor H., ed. (1990), Tao Te Ching: The Classic Book of Integrity and the Way, New York, NY: Bantam Books, ISBN9780307434630 .
  • Bryce, Derek; et al., eds. (1991), Tao-Te-Ching, York Beach: Samuel Weiser, ISBN9781609254414 .
  • Addiss, Stephen and Lombardo, Stanley (1991) Tao Te Ching, Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company.
  • Le Guin, Ursula K., ed. (1998), Lao Tzu: Tao Te Ching: A Book about the Way and the Power of Manner, Boulder, CO: Shambhala Publications, ISBN9781611807240 .
  • Republic of chad Hansen, Laozi: Tao Te Ching on The Art of Harmony, Duncan Baird Publications 2009

See also [edit]

  • Daozang
  • Huahujing
  • Huainanzi
  • Huangdi Yinfujing
  • Liezi
  • Qingjing Jing
  • Sanhuangjing
  • Taiping Jing
  • Xishengjing
  • Zhuangzi

Notes [edit]

  1. ^ Less mutual old romanizations include Tao-te-male monarch ,[3] Tau Tĕh King [4] and Tao Teh King .[five] [6]

References [edit]

Citations [edit]

  1. ^ "Tao-te-Ching". Lexico Uk English Lexicon. Oxford University Press. n.d.
  2. ^ "Tao Te Ching". Lexicon.com Entire (Online). n.d. Retrieved 23 June 2020.
  3. ^ Julien (1842), p. ii.
  4. ^ a b Chalmers (1868), p. v.
  5. ^ a b c Legge & al. (1891).
  6. ^ a b Suzuki & al. (1913).
  7. ^ Ellwood, Robert South. (2008). The Encyclopedia of World Religions. Infobase Publishing. p. 262. ISBN978-1-4381-1038-7.
  8. ^ "The Tao Te Ching past Laozi: ancient wisdom for modern times". the Guardian. 27 December 2013. Retrieved 28 January 2022.
  9. ^ Eliade (1984), p. 26
  10. ^ a b c d e Chan (2013).
  11. ^ Creel 1970, What is Taoism? 75
  12. ^ Kohn & al. (1998), p. 1.
  13. ^ a b Julien (1842).
  14. ^ Giles & al. (1905), Introduction.
  15. ^ Mair (1990).
  16. ^ Wieger (1913), p. 3.
  17. ^ Bryce & al. (1991), p. ix.
  18. ^ Chalmers (1868), p. ix.
  19. ^ Seidel, Anna. 1969. La divinisation de Lao tseu dans le taoïsme des Han. Paris: École française d'Extrême‑Orient. 24, l
  20. ^ Austin, Michael (2010). "Reading the Globe: Ideas that Affair", p. 158. Westward. W. Norton & Company, New York. ISBN 978-0-393-93349-9.
  21. ^ Feng Cao. "Daoism in Early People's republic of china: Huang-Lao Thought in Calorie-free of Excavated Texts"; Palgrave Macmillan, 2017.
  22. ^ a b Chan, Alan, "Laozi", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2018 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), retrieved 3 February 2020
  23. ^ William G. Boltz, "The Religious and Philosophical Significance of the 'Hsiang erh' "Lao tzu" 相 爾 老 子 in the Light of the "Ma-wang-tui" Silk Manuscripts", Message of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 45 (1982), pp. 95ff
  24. ^ Boltz (1993), p. 284
  25. ^ See Lau (1989), Henricks (1989), Mair (1990), Henricks 2000, Allan and Williams 2000, and Roberts 2004
  26. ^ LaFargue & al. (1998), p. 277.
  27. ^ Welch (1965), p. 7
  28. ^ Chalmers (1868).
  29. ^ Chalmers (1868), p. xix.
  30. ^ "The Journal of Religion".
  31. ^ "The Taoism of the Western Imagination and the Taoism of China: De-Colonizing the Exotic Teachings of the Eastward" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 January 2007.
  32. ^ Russell Kirkland (2004). Taoism: The Enduring Tradition. Taylor & Francis. p. 1. ISBN978-0-203-64671-7.
  33. ^ [1] [ dead link ]
  34. ^ Review of Tao Te Ching: A Book about the Style and the Power of the Way by Ursula 1000. Le Guin, Journal of the American Academy of Organized religion, 66 (1998), pp. 686–689
  35. ^ Welch (1965), p. nine
  36. ^ Henricks (1989), p. xvi

Sources [edit]

  • Ariel, Yoav, and Gil Raz. "Anaphors or Cataphors? A Discussion of the Two qi 其 Graphs in the First Chapter of the Daodejing." PEW 60.3 (2010): 391–421
  • Boltz, William (1993), "Lao tzu Tao-te-ching", Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide, Berkeley, CA: Academy of California Press, pp. 269–92, ISBNone-55729-043-1 .
  • Chan, Alan (2013), "Laozi", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford, CA: Stanford University .
  • Cole, Alan, "Simplicity for the Sophisticated: ReReading the Daode Jing for the Polemics of Ease and Innocence," in History of Religions, Baronial 2006, pp. 1–49
  • Damascene, Hieromonk, Lou Shibai, and You-Shan Tang. Christ the Eternal Tao. Platina, CA: Saint Herman Printing, 1999.
  • Eliade, Mircea (1984), A History of Religious Ideas, vol. ii, translated by Trask, Willard R., Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Printing
  • Kaltenmark, Max. Lao Tzu and Taoism. Translated by Roger Greaves. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 1969.
  • Klaus, Hilmar Das Tao der Weisheit. Laozi-Daodejing. English + German introduction, 140 p. bibliogr., iii German transl. Aachen: Mainz 2008, 548 p.
  • Klaus, Hilmar The Tao of Wisdom. Laozi-Daodejing. Chinese-English language-German. 2 verbatim + 2 coordinating transl., 140 p. bibl., Aachen: Mainz 2009 600p.
  • Kohn, Livia; et al. (1998), "Editors' Introduction", Lao-tzu and the Tao-te-ching, Albany, NY: Country University of New York Press, pp. 1–22, ISBN9780791436004 .
  • Komjathy, Louis. Handbooks for Daoist Do. 10 vols. Hong Kong: Yuen Yuen Institute, 2008.
  • LaFargue, Michael; et al. (1998), "On Translating the Tao-te-ching", Lao-tzu and the Tao-te-ching, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, pp. 277–302, ISBN9780791436004 .
  • Welch, Holmes (1965) [1957], Taoism: The Parting of the Way, Boston, MA: Beacon Printing

External links [edit]

  • James Legge'due south translation of the Tao Te Ching at Standard Ebooks
  • Daodejing Wang Bi edition with English language translation, Guodian text, and Mawangdui text – Chinese Text Projection
  • Tao Te Ching public domain audiobook at LibriVox
  • Legge, Suzuki, and Goddard'south translations side-by-side, forth with the original text
  • Dàodéjīng verbatim + coordinating + poetic; Chinese + English + High german by Hilmar Alquiros Chinese: 老子 Lǎozǐ Chinese: 道德經

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tao_Te_Ching

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